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"This is a white man's government," Democratic platform regarding the Reconstruction Acts, 1868, print by Thomas Nast, Harper's Weekly, courtesy of Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

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Map of the British Empire in America with the French and Spanish Settlements, map by Henry Popple, 1733, courtesy of the John Carter Brown Library.

Racial classifications in Spanish colonies in the Americas, ca. eighteenth century, courtesy of Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán, Mexico. Racial classifications in Spanish colonies in the Americas, ca. eighteenth century, courtesy of Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán, Mexico. By the end of the eighteenth century, sexual interactions and intermarriage between Europeans, Africans, and American Indians in Spanish colonies led to a large interracial population and wide range of recognized racial categories.

The Slave Trade (Slaves on the West Coast of Africa) by François Auguste Biard, oil on canvas, circa 1833, courtesy of BBC Paintings. Initially, captives in the trans-Atlantic slave trade came from coastal port areas of West and Central Africa. As demands for more enslaved labor increased in the Americas, the slave trade in Africa expanded, and more captives originated from deeper in the interior.

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Drayton Hall, a former plantation in Charleston, South Carolina, courtesy of Jane Aldrich, 2005.

Watercolor painting of southeastern American Indians and an African child, Alexander De Batz, French Louisiana, 1735.

A map depicting European occupation of North America in 1702, made in 2010. Areas that are a solid color represent approximate areas of occupation, rather than officially claimed lands, which were generally much larger. Areas with conflicting claims are depicted with color gradation, and may or may not be occupied by either side. Many of these land claims also intersect lands claimed by American Indians, which are not shown.

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Former site of Fort Mose, Fort Mose Historic State Park, photograph, St. Augustine, Florida, 2008. Escaped slaves from Carolina and Georgia were recognized as free in Spanish Florida, as a military tactic by the Spanish to destabilize the English plantation economy. Free Africans were often taken into the Spanish militia, at sites such as the Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mosé fort north of St. Augustine (also known as Fort Mose), which was established in 1738 by the colonial governor, Manuel de Montiano. The military leader at the fort was a Creole man of African origin, who was baptized as Francisco Menendez by the Spanish.

Map of African American populations in the thirteen English colonies that later became the United States, seventeenth through eighteenth centuries (modern state boundaries shown), by Michael Siegel, 2005, courtesy of Routledge Cartography.

African burial ground, Manhattan, New York, ca. 1700s. The African Burial Ground National Monument currently preserves this site containing the remains of more than 400 enslaved and free Africans buried during the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in New York City. Slavery was generally more prevalent and politically supported in New York City than other northern cities such as Philadelphia and Boston.

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